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Pozycja High-stakes online testing: A comparative study of English for Academic Purposes home-based exams(© Express Publishing, 2025, 2025) Sendur, Agnieszka M.This article explores the rise of online high-stakes English for Academic Purposes (EAP) exams, focusing on IELTS (International English Language Testing System) Online, TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) iBT Home Edition, and Pearson Test of English (PTE) Academic. It compares and contrasts these exams across various aspects, including format, assessed skills, scoring mechanisms, technical requirements, and security measures. Key findings reveal that while all three exams assess the four primary language skills (listening, reading, writing, and speaking) and offer similar benefits, such as convenience and accessibility, they also exhibit notable differences. These include task types, scoring approaches (human vs Al), and speaking assessment methods (human interaction vs. recorded responses).The article acknowledges the ongoing debate regarding the reliability of Al scoring in productive skills (speaking and writing). While some studies emphasise Al's objectivity and consistency, others highlight the lack of transparent validation evidence. Additionally, the article examines security measures employed in online exams to ensure test integrity, such as remote invigilation, candidate authentication, data encryption, and software restrictions to prevent unauthorised access and cheating. In conclusion, this article provides a comprehensive overview of three leading online EAP certification exams, highlighting their similarities, differences, and ongoing discussions surrounding Al scoring and exam security.Pozycja Molecular Properties of Starch–Water Interactions in the Presence of Bioactive Compounds from Barley and Buckwheat—LF NMR Preliminary Study(Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland, 2025) Adamczyk, Greta; Masewicz, Łukasz; Przybył, Krzysztof; Zaryczniak, Aleksandra; Kowalczewski, Przemysław Łukasz; Beszterda-Buszczak, Monika; Cichocki, Wojciech; Baranowska, Hanna MariaThe retrogradation of starch strongly influences the texture and stability of starchy foods. This study applied low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF NMR) to examine the effect of buckwheat hull (BH) fiber and green barley (GB) on water dynamics in normal (NPS) and waxy (WPS) potato starch gels. Relaxation times (T1, T2) and mean correlation times (τc) were monitored during 15 days of storage to evaluate changes in water mobility and starch–polymer interactions. Results showed that WPS, with its high amylopectin content, retrograded earlier than NPS. The addition of BH inhibited conformational changes associated with water binding in WPS gels, indicating that insoluble fiber entrapped water within the amylopectin network. Conversely, GB promoted higher τc values in WPS, reflecting enhanced ordering and reduced water mobility, while its impact on NPS was minor. In NPS systems, BH decreased τc, suggesting disruption of amylose-driven structural reorganization. These findings demonstrate that BH and GB exert opposite effects on starch retrogradation and highlight their potential as functional additives for tailoring texture and stability in starch-based food systems.Pozycja The application of convolutional neural networks, LF-NMR, and texture for microparticle analysis in assessing the quality of fruit powders: Case study – blackcurrant powders(De Gruyter, 2025) Przybył, Krzysztof; Samborska, Katarzyna; Jedlińska, Aleksandra; Koszela, Krzysztof; Baranowska, Hanna Maria; Masewicz, Łukasz; Kowalczewski, Przemysław ŁukaszIt can be observed that dynamic developments in artificial intelligence contributing to the evolution of existing techniques used in food research. Currently, innovative methods are being sought to support unit processes such as food drying, while at the same time monitoring quality and extending their shelf life. The development of innovative technology using convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to assess the quality of fruit powders seems highly desirable. This will translate into obtaining homogeneous batches of powders based on the specific morphological structure of the obtained microparticles. The research aims to apply convolutional networks to assess the quality, consistency, and homogeneity of blackcurrant powders supported by comparative physical methods of low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) and texture analysis. The results show that maltodextrin, inulin, whey milk proteins, microcrystalline cellulose, and gum arabic are effective carriers when identifying morphological structure using CNNs. The use of CNNs, texture analysis, and the effect of LF-NMR relaxation time together with statistical elaboration shows that maltodextrin as well as milk whey proteins in combination with inulin achieve the most favorable results. The best results were obtained for a sample containing 50% maltodextrin and 50%maltodextrin (MD50-MD70). The CNNmodel for this combination had the lowest mean squared error in the test set at 2.5741 × 10−4, confirming its high performance in the classification of blackcurrant powder microstructures.Pozycja The Effect of Osmotic Dehydration Conditions on the Magnesium Content in Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.)(Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland., 2025) Kulczyński, Bartosz; Suliburska, Joanna; Gramza-Michałowska, Anna; Sidor, Andrzej; Kowalczewski, Przemysław Łukasz; Brzozowska, AnnaOsmotic dehydration is a process involving a two-way mass transfer, during which water and substances dissolved in it are removed from the product and, at the same time, sub-stances dissolved in a hypertonic solution penetrate into the tissues. This process has a significant effect on, among other things, the nutritional and sensory parameters, as well as the texture and shelf life of the dehydrated product. This study analyzed the effect of osmotic dehydration of beet on magnesium content following the addition of various chemical forms of magnesium (magnesium oxide, magnesium citrate, magnesium chlo-ride) to a hypertonic solution. Magnesium was added in concentrations of 2.5 or 5.0% relative to the mass of the solution. The following compounds were used to prepare hy-pertonic solutions (25 and 50%): inulin, xylitol, erythritol, and sucrose. The control sample was water. A significant increase in magnesium content in the dehydrated material was confirmed. This effect was determined by many factors, among which the most important were the chemical form of magnesium, the type of osmotically active substance, magne-sium concentration, and process time. The highest magnesium content was found in sam-ples dehydrated in a 50% inulin solution with a 5.0% addition of magnesium chloride under the following conditions: 120 min/30 °C. It was also demonstrated that osmotically dehydrated samples exhibited approximately 3–5 times lower antioxidant activity in DPPH, ABTS, and ORAC tests.Pozycja Upcycling Potato Juice Protein for Sustainable Plant-Based Gyros: A Multidimensional Quality Assessment(Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland, 2025) Smarzyński, Krzysztof; Kowalczewski, Przemysław Łukasz; Tomczak, Aneta; Zembrzuska, Joanna; Ślachciński, Mariusz; Neunert, Grażyna; Ruszkowska, Millena; Świątek, Michał; Nowicki, Marcin; Baranowska, Hanna MariaThe growing demand for sustainable, nutritionally adequate plant-based foods has driven innovation in meat analogues. This study presents a novel approach to upcycling potato juice protein—a by-product of starch production—into plant-based gyros (PBG) enriched with iron and dietary fiber. Four formulations (PBG1-PBG4) were developed using a blend of potato, rice, wheat, and pea proteins, and fortified with either ferritin-rich sprout powder or ferrous sulfate. Comprehensive analyses were conducted to assess nutritional composition, mineral content, glycoalkaloid safety, antioxidant activity, texture, water mobility, sensory appeal, and microbiological stability. All variants met high-protein labeling criteria and exhibited favorable fiber and mineral profiles. In vitro digestion significantly enhanced antioxidant bioaccessibility, particularly phenolic acids. Sensory evaluations favored ferritin-enriched variants, which also demonstrated superior texture and consumer acceptance. Microbiological assessments confirmed safety for up to 10 days under refrigeration. These findings highlight the potential of potato juice protein as a sustainable, functional ingredient in next-generation plant-based meat analogues.Pozycja Świat certyfikatów językowych. Jak znaleźć egzamin z języka angielskiego dopasowany do swoich potrzeb?(©Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, Warszawa 2025, 2025) Sendur, Agnieszka M.The selection of an English certification exam is an important and difficult decision influenced by various factors, including the candidate’s goals, language proficiency level and institutional requirements. This article explores the diverse types of certification exams available, addressing their purposes, target audiences and specific features. It highlights the importance of aligning the choice of exam with personal and professional objectives, such as higher education, career advancement or migration. Additionally, it examines key aspects like the validity period of certificates, cost considerations and preparation strategies. The discussion also touches upon the differences in exam formats, including computer-based and traditional paper-based tests, as well as the role of human interaction in oral sections. By providing an overview of these crucial factors, the article aims to assist candidates in making informed decisions to achieve optimal outcomes tailored to their individual needs.Pozycja Overview of the Foreign Language Sections in the Matriculation Exam in Poland and the University Entrance Exam in Türkiye(Copyright (c) 2024 Journal of Narrative and Language Studies, 2024) Sendur, Agnieszka M.; Kılıçkaya, FeritThis paper highlights the contrasting approaches to foreign language assessment in high-stakes examinations for university education in Poland and Türkiye, focusing on content, task types, and language skills. In Poland, language acquisition is seen as a tool for effective communication, while in Türkiye, it is often perceived as rote memorization of grammar and vocabulary. This difference in mindset is influenced by prevailing assessment practices, where Türkiye’s evaluation methods prioritize memorization, leading to a diminished emphasis on communication and practical language use. This disparity is reflected in the EF English Proficiency Index, with Poland ranking high and Türkiye ranking low in language proficiency. Neglected language skills, such as speaking and listening, further exacerbate the issue. Despite discussions on transforming assessment practices for decades, Türkiye has made little progress. The practicality of multiple-choice-based tests in Türkiye is noted, but their limitations in testing language skills comprehensively are acknowledged.Pozycja Exam Cheating Then and Now: A Comparison of Academic Dishonesty in the World’s Oldest Testing System and Present-day Academia(Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawła II, 2024) Sendur, Agnieszka M.In recent years, cheating in exams has been reported to be a serious issue in many countries. Some believe the problem to be more severe, due to the development of modern technologies. But academic dishonesty is not a new phenomenon. This article is going to look into the cheating methods used in the world’s first examination system in Imperial China and the means devised to prevent these malpractices. These are compared with examples of exam cheating observed in contemporary societies and the measures that institutions take to safeguard test and certificate validity. Cheating practices in Imperial exams are described on the basis of the available literature and the preserved artefacts. The state of the problem of cheating by contemporary students has been assembled, based on research articles. Despite all the changes that have occurred in educational systems over the years, cheating methods have not in essence changed significantly.Pozycja Certyfikat z języka angielskiego bez wychodzenia z domu Porównanie egzaminów na poziomie B2 w wersji online(Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, Wydawnictwo FRSE, 2023) Sendur, Agnieszka M.More and more foreign language certificates can be taken from home. Candidates can choose a particular CEFR level at which they want to test their language proficiency or they can take a multi-level adaptive test. General English (GE), Academic English and some English for Specific Purposes certification examinations are available with the use of the at-home option. Some of the tests are assessed traditionally, by human markers; others are marked by artificial intelligence; others yet make use of what both these assessment techniques offer. In the article, the researcher makes a comparison of two GE tests at the B2 level available online. Pearson English International Certificate CBT and LanguageCert International ESOL are compared with reference to the format of the exam, task types, marking solutions and candidate identification and invigilation measures taken to safeguard exam integrity.Pozycja Ewolucja egzaminu maturalnego z języków obcych na przestrzeni sześciu dekad(Czasopismo Polskiego Towarzystwa Neofilologicznego, 2023) Sendur, Agnieszka M.Matura is an important high-stakes examination present in the Polish education system since the late 18th century. It is taken on completion of high school and is compulsory for those who want to apply for higher education. As a result of an examination reform, in 2005 the exam took on a new form. Since then it has been a professional, external, standardised assessment used for the analysis of school and student performance, and – most importantly – in lieu of university entrance exams. The article looks at the evolution of the foreign language component of the Matura exam over the last six decades: from an internal test prepared by local authorities and by schools, assessed arbitrarily by the test-takers’ teachers, to a professional examination prepared by expert institutions in compliance with quality standards and assessed by trained markers according to elaborate grading criteria. The paper follows the changes occurring in the assessment starting from 1960 up to 2023, when another examination reform brought about new modifications in the foreign language exam.Pozycja Academic Malpractice in Tests and Exams from an International Perspective(Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2022) Sendur, Agnieszka M.Cheating in exams and other forms of academic dishonesty have been reported to be a serious issue in many countries. A lot of research has been conducted on the topic, but it focuses mainly on the US context. Studies pertaining to the problem in other countries are rather scarce. The existing research considers the issue from different perspectives. Some studies concentrate on the scope of the problem in a particular country, others choose to research individual and contextual factors in cheating, or students’ perceptions of and attitudes towards exam malpractice. The surveys are often restricted to selected nationalities, the questions are limited to the frequency of cheating and they rarely include reference to the methods used. In reaction to the rarity of research on cheating methods among students from different cultural backgrounds, an international questionnaire survey was undertaken. Its aim, among others, was to answer two research questions: (1) What methods do students use to cheat in tests and exams? (2) Are there significant cultural differences in the way students cheat in tests and exams? Students from France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Ukraine, the USA and other countries were asked in an online questionnaire about the methods they have used to cheat in tests and exams. The results of the survey conducted on 1309 students show that there are similarities but also differences between the cultures with reference to the scope and to the methods used to cheat. The findings should be taken into consideration in classroom and high-stakes assessment, but also in any cross-national comparisons of students’ outcomes. Teachers, administrators and researchers ought to be aware that the differences in attitudes towards academic cheating between the nationalities may influence test validity.Pozycja Stopa oszczędności gospodarstw domowych — różnice w ujęciu mikro- i makroekonomicznym(Główny Urząd Statystyczny, 2013) Fatuła, DariuszThe article discusses the method of calculating the rate of household savings based on data from sample survey of household budgets and data from the national accounts (household sector). Significant differences in the values of saving rates calculated in both approach in years 2007—2011 were observed. Selected data items affecting the formation of savings category in both approaches were analyzed. Among the possible causes of differences in saving rates the following were discussed: limited ability of some households to separate the consumer and the production functions, taking into account income adjustment for the change in net equity of households in pension fund reserves as well as differences in the share of expenditure of significant items affecting this category. The goal of discussion is to propose changes in method or definition leading to alignment the value of the saving rates at the micro- and macro-economic scale.Pozycja Short interpregnancy interval and low birth weight: a role of parity(Wiley, 2015-03) Merklinger-Gruchała, Anna; Jasienska, Grazyna; Kapiszewska, MariaObjectives: Short interpregnancy intervals (IPI) and high parity may be synergistically associated with the risk of unfavorable pregnancy outcomes. This study tests if the effect of short IPI on the odds ratio for low birth weight (LBW, <2,500 g) differs across parity status. Methods: The study was carried out on the birth registry sample of almost 40,000 singleton, live-born infants who were delivered between the years 1995 and 2009 to multiparous mothers whose residence at the time of infant’s birth was the city of Krakow. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used for testing the effect of IPI on the odds ratio (OR) for LBW, after controlling for employment, educational and marital status, parity, sex of the child, maternal and gestational age. Stratified analyses (according to parity) and tests for interaction were performed. Results: Very short IPI (0–5 months) was associated with an increased OR for LBW, but only among high parity mothers with three or more births (OR = 2.64; 95% CI 1.45–4.80). The test for interaction between very short IPI and parity on the OR for LBW was statistically significant after adjustment for multiple comparisons (P = 0.04). Among low parity mothers (two births) no statistically significant associations were found between IPI and LBW after standardization. Conclusion: Parity may modify the association between short birth spacing and LBW. Women with very short IPI and high parity may have a higher risk of having LBW infants than those with very short IPI but low parity.Pozycja Zasady wyceny złóż kopalin na gruncie kodeksów ich wyceny(Wyższa Szkoła Finansów i Prawa w Bielsku-Białej, 2016) Uberman, RobertPrezentowany artykuł zawiera analizę metod i zasad wyceny złóż kopalin zalecanych przez cztery kodeksy regulujące tą działalność: VALMIN, CIMVAL, SAMVAL i POLVAL – wg wiedzy autora jedyne wprowadzone w życie uregulowania w tym zakresie. Wskazuje podobieństwa i różnice między nimi wraz ze wskazaniem uwarunkowań powodujących te drugie. Analizuje wpływ teorii cyklu życia projektu górniczo-geologicznego na ich konstrukcję w zakresie rekomendowanych podejść i metod wyceny.Pozycja Służba Bezpieczeństwa jako praktyk wpływu społecznego. Oddziaływanie na tajnych współpracowników(Rzeszów: IPN - Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu, 2013) Gałkowska, Agnieszka"Utrzymanie władzy mającej zakusy totalitarne wiąże się z rozpowszechnianiem umacniającej ją ideologii oraz kontrolowaniem niemal wszystkich sfer życia obywateli. Chociaż jej zdobycie i ugruntowywanie wymaga siły i przymusu, często o charakterze terroru, to dalsze trwanie i względna stabilność reżimu zależeć musi od działań kształtujących społeczeństwo według potrzeb rządzących. Kluczowe staje się więc zagadnienie skutecznego wpływu społecznego."(...)Pozycja Zarządzanie wartościami w zarządzaniu przedsiębiorstwem medialnym(Uniwersytet Jagielloński, 2013) Mirski, AndrzejNowadays values plays important role in the modern management. The essence of management values in the company is taking care by managers about the most important values, putting them on, promoting, compliance and control. The values in the field of management of the company can be, according to the author of the article into three main groups: 1. the values in the moral sense: set standards and norms of behavior, 2. the values in terms of utility, primarily concerning the product, 3. the values in economic terms, which include the value of the product, achieved, as well as the value of the firm. There is only one, according to the author of this paper a way to permanently improve the quality and attractiveness of information (as well as the media company’s reputation), namely, that the information will become real creative and cultural goods. At the time when the information produced and distributed by the media company will have the character and quality of cultural and creative goods, acquire the nature of public goods, giving positive externalities. As such, should benefit from public support perspective, as it happens with culture and education institutions.Pozycja Poziom opłacenia kapitału ludzkiego w Polsce a ustawowa płaca minimalna(Instytut Organizacji i Zarządzania Wydział Cybernetyki Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna w Warszawie, 2018) Oliwkiewicz, BarbaraJednym z podstawowych warunków funkcjonowania przedsiębiorstwa na rynku są dobrzy pracownicy. Obecnie kapitał ludzki ma coraz większe znaczenie dla istnienia jednostki gospodarczej. Celem artykułu jest analiza i ocena poziomu opłacenia pracy w Polsce w kontekście ustawowej płacy minimalnej. W artykule zostaną opublikowane wyniki badań nad poziomem opłacenia kapitału ludzkiego w Polsce na przykładzie województwa małopolskiego. Tłem powyższych rozważań będzie współczesna teoria pomiaru kapitału ludzkiego oraz godziwych wynagrodzeń. Do zrealizowania celu jako metodę badawczą wykorzystano badanie ankietowe, analizę opisową i porównawczą oraz przegląd źródeł literaturowych. Tematyka opracowania jest istotna w związku z bieżącą sytuacją na rynku pracy, który staje się rynkiem pracownika, a nie pracodawcy. Ważne dla pracodawców powinno być utrzymanie dobrych pracowników, a gwarancją tego jest przede wszystkim godziwe wynagradzanie za pracę. Poprawne zrozumienie kapitału ludzkiego jako zdolności do wykonywania pracy, potraktowanie pracy jako transferu kapitału ludzkiego do obiektów pracy i płacy jako należności za wykonaną pracę jest głównym założeniem współczesnej teorii kapitału ludzkiego i godziwych wynagrodzeń. Zasady opłacania kapitału ludzkiego wynikają z natury kapitału. Jak już stwierdzono w wielu wcześniejszych opracowaniach, nikt nie może stworzyć kapitału, a sam kapitał nie powstaje z niczego. Ma on swoje źródła i możliwa jest jego wycena w jednostkach pieniężnych. Kapitał ulokowany w organizmie ludzkim ulega spontanicznemu rozproszeniu na skutek wykonywanej pracy, choroby, wypadków i innych zdarzeń losowych. Płaca powinna równoważyć te ubytki. Wysokość godziwego wynagrodzenia powinna być ustalona przy zastosowaniu stałej ekonomicznej potencjalnego wzrostu (SEPW). Liczne badania empiryczne potwierdzają rozmiar tej stałej jako 8% w skali roku. Przeprowadzona analiza pokazuje, że poziom opłacenia pracy w Polsce jest coraz wyższy. Jednak wciąż brak zgodności z wartością kapitału ludzkiego, czego dowodzi niniejsze opracowanie.Pozycja Zasady ponoszenia kosztów utrzymania nieruchomości wspólnej w kontekście treści i aksjologii ustawy o własności lokali w świetle orzecznictwa sądowego i poglądów doktryny(Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie, 2016) Damasiewicz, AgnieszkaThe subject of this article is the differentiation of the rules that govern joint owners’ obligation to bear maintenance costs for a jointly owned property. I examine this issue in the light of the wording and axiology of the Polish Ownership of Premises Act (Ustawa o własności lokali). My starting point is the provision which says that joint owners bear the costs of maintaining a jointly owned property in proportion to their share in the ownership. Next I describe two issues that concern the aforementioned provision which often crop up in practice and are controversial. The first is the admissibility of the resolution that determines different amounts due in advance payments from different owners on the grounds of the category of the premises or parts (e.g. a basement or an attic) each of them holds. The second concerns the admissibility of a co-owner formulating a request for such a resolution. I answer these questions on the grounds of the aforementioned provision and present the legal consequences of a practice which is in breach of this regulation. I go on to comment on the axiological grounds for the differentiation or non-differentiation in advance payments due from respective co-owners. I conclude by giving my opinion on the question whether the provision should reflect the practice and consequently should be amended, or alternatively whether the practice should be corrected in accordance with the existing provision.Pozycja Twórczość jako źródło kultury(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, 2011) Mirski, AndrzejIn this paper the author presents human creativity as the main source of culture. Logically, it comes even from the definition of culture, understood as everything created by men (everything, which does not belong to nature). Creation by man includes the material, symbolic and societal types of culture. In the field of symbolic culture, like art, science or media, the process of creativity includes activities which result in new and valuable products. Creativity develops in the private, social and cultural domains. In the private domain an individual creates something, which is new and valuable for himself (or herself). In the social domain an individual creates something, which is new and valuable to a group, where he or she belongs. Finally, creativity in the cultural domain means creating something, which is new and valuable for all human culture. Normally it is possible through the publication or public presentation of a product, after a process of selection. Thus, normally there exists a barrier of entering this main. Creativity in the domain of culture requires not only being a creative person in the psychological sense, but also a huge amount of knowledge and practice in the specific field of activity. But by enhancing the private and social creativity, it is possible to enlarge the number of persons, which could inspire to enter the domain of cultural activity. Moreover, the true creative activity always contains the individual, private, authentic internal perspective, and is always directed to some social environment. Also, the new ways of distributing the creative products, like the Internet, makes the barrier to cultural creativity less tight, than they used to be in the past.Pozycja Płaca minimalna płacą godziwą w wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu, 2018) Oliwkiewicz, BarbaraDyskusje na temat płac minimalnych można spotkać w wielu opracowaniach z dziedziny ekonomii. Obecnie kraje przyjmują różne rozwiązania w zakresie zabezpieczenia minimalnego wynagrodzenia. Zgodnie z współczesną teorią pomiaru kapitału ludzkiego i godziwych wynagrodzeń minimalne godziwe wynagrodzenie pracownika powinno wynosić 8% wartości kapitału ludzkiego pracownika, o czym świadczą liczne badania poprzedników. Celem niniejszego opracowania jest zbadanie, czy płaca minimalna w wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej (Polska, Belgia i Niemcy) jest płacą godziwą. W pierwszej części opracowania na podstawie studiów literatury przedmiotu omówiono model płacy godziwej oraz dylematy płacy minimalnej w gospodarce. Druga część przedstawia analizę i ocenę godziwości płac minimalnych w Polsce, Belgii i Niemczech. Przeprowadzona analiza wskazuje na godziwy minimalny poziom opłacania kapitału ludzkiego w Belgii i w Niemczech. Polska natomiast jest krajem, gdzie nie można stwierdzić, że płaca minimalna jest płacą godziwą.